Computational Linguistics
type: channel
description: Computational Linguistics, established in 1974, is the official flagship journal of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL). It is a leading venue for scholarly work spanning computational linguistics, natural language processing, and related areas in the computational study of language. The journal publishes high-quality, peer-reviewed research advancing our understanding of language through computation. It welcomes strong contributions in theoretical modeling, empirical investigation, system design, and scalable methods for language representation, generation, and understanding, with particular emphasis on challenging aspects of language modeling, emerging computational paradigms (including large-scale language models), and research bridging theoretical, empirical, linguistic, and interdisciplinary perspectives. To ensure timely, high-quality dissemination, Computational Linguistics maintains a rigorous yet efficient editorial process. As of 2025, the average time to first decision is 16.5 days (including desk rejections) and 55.0 days (excluding desk rejections). The journal's 2025 impact factor is 13.4. All articles are freely available online, published electronically by MIT Press (E-ISSN: 1530-9312) with immediate open access. Print issues (ISSN: 0891-2017) are released quarterly and distributed globally. Original papers may also be presented at ACL-sponsored conferences such as ACL and EMNLP, with select works highlighted during these events. The current Editor-in-Chief is Wei Lu (since 2024). Meet the full editorial team here. At a Glance More information about the journal, including its focus and scope, review process, and categories of submissions, can be found here. Detailed submission guidelines can be found here. Guidelines and information for special issue proposals can be found here. Highlights and Announcements Congratulations to Julia Hirschberg, former Editor-in-Chief of Computational Linguistics, on receiving the 2025 ACL Dragomir Rade…
publisher: MIT Press
language: en
publication name: Computational Linguistics
issn: 0891-2017
items: Retrospective and Future Views
items: Conundrum of Trustworthy Research on Attacking Personally Identifiable Information Removal Techniques
items: Large Language Model Instruction Following: A Survey of Progresses and Challenges
items: An Alternative Conception of Compositional Distributional Semantics
items: Multiple Adjunction in Feature-based Tree-Adjoining Grammar
items: Modeling Language Variation and Universals: A Survey on Typological Linguistics for Natural Language Processing
items: Rethinking Data Use in Large Language Models
items: Yesterday’s News: Benchmarking Multi-Dimensional Out-of-Distribution Generalization of Misinformation Detection Models
items: How Can We Effectively Expand the Vocabulary of LLMs with 0.01GB of Target Language Text?
items: Multimodal OXYmorons: A Comprehensive Introduction and Computational Analysis Using a Dataset of Oxymoronic Memes in Italian and Spanish
items: Automated Essay Scoring
items: Defensive Dual Masking for Robust Adversarial Defense
items: The Quest for the Right Mediator: Surveying Mechanistic Interpretability for NLP Through the Lens of Causal Mediation Analysis
items: LLMs and Cultural Values: The Impact of Prompt Language and Explicit Cultural Framing
items: Are Formal and Functional Linguistic Mechanisms Dissociated in Language Models?
items: Truth or Mirage? Towards End-To-End Factuality Evaluation with LLM-Oasis
items: Instructional Text Across Disciplines: A Survey of Representations, Downstream Tasks, and Open Challenges Toward Capable AI Agents
items: Sequence Labeling for Constituent Parsing: A Comparative Study and Encoding Innovations
items: LFG-Generation from Acyclic F-Structures is NP-Hard
items: Anthropocentric bias in language model evaluation
items: VPO: Leveraging the Number of Votes in Preference Optimization
items: Large Linguistic Corpus Reduction with SCP Algorithms
items: IDT: Dual-Task Adversarial Rewriting for Attribute Anonymisation
items: Tokenization as Finite-State Transduction
items: We Should Evaluate Real-World Impact
items: Training and Evaluating with Human Label Variation: An Empirical Study
items: On Natural Language Stringsets, Senses, and Generative Capacity
items: Editorial: Opening a New Chapter for Computational Linguistics
items: Book Review: Automatic Language Identification in Texts
items: MUCking In, or Fifty Years in Information Extraction

Retrospective and Future Views
type: item
description: I was honored to receive the Association for Linguistics Lifetime Achievement Award in 2025. I especially want to thank the people who nominated me for the award as I know nominations require time and effort. This paper is a rough transcript of the speech I gave accepting the award at the conference in Vienna, Austria. In the talk, I look back at my research at early stages of my career and then look at the arc that research takes and how it relates to work that I still carry out today. I look at the trajectories of four areas of my research: language generation, text summarization, social media analysis and multimodal analysis of artwork. In the talk, I featured videos of my current students speaking about their research and where they think the field is heading. I dedicate the talk and this paper to the amazing students I have had the honor to work with over the years.
subject: Lifetime Achievement
  topic: section
creator: Kathy McKeown
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

Conundrum of Trustworthy Research on Attacking Personally Identifiable Information Removal Techniques
type: item
description: Removing personally identifiable information (PII) from texts is necessary to comply with various data protection regulations and to enable data sharing without compromising privacy. However, recent works show that documents sanitized by PII removal techniques are vulnerable to reconstruction attacks. Yet, we suspect that the reported success of these attacks is largely overestimated. We critically analyze the evaluation of existing attacks and find that data leakage and data contamination are not properly mitigated, leaving the question whether or not PII removal techniques truly protect privacy in real-world scenarios unaddressed. We investigate possible data sources and attack setups that avoid data leakage and conclude that only truly private data can allow us to objectively evaluate vulnerabilities in PII removal techniques. However, access to private data is heavily restricted—and for good reasons—which also means that the public research community cannot address this problem in a transparent, reproducible, and trustworthy manner.
subject: Position Paper
  topic: section
subject: Personal identifiable information
  topic: keywords
subject: Privacy
  topic: keywords
subject: Adversarial Attacks
  topic: keywords
subject: Data leakage
  topic: keywords
subject: Text anonymization
  topic: keywords
subject: Research ethics
  topic: keywords
creator: Sebastian Ochs
creator: Ivan Habernal
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

Large Language Model Instruction Following: A Survey of Progresses and Challenges
type: item
description: Task semantics can be expressed by a set of input-output examples or a piece of textual instruction. Conventional machine learning approaches for natural language processing (NLP) mainly rely on the availability of large-scale sets of task-specific examples. Two issues arise: First, collecting task-specific labeled examples does not apply to scenarios where tasks may be too complicated or costly to annotate, or the system is required to handle a new task immediately; second, this is not user-friendly since end-users are probably more willing to provide task description rather than a set of examples before using the system. Therefore, the community is paying increasing interest in a new supervision-seeking paradigm for NLP: learning to follow task instructions, that is, instruction following. Despite its impressive progress, there are some unsolved research equations that the community struggles with. This survey tries to summarize and provide insights into the current research on instruction following, particularly, by answering the following questions: (i) What is task instruction, and what instruction types exist? (ii) How should we model instructions? (iii) What are popular instruction following datasets and evaluation metrics? (iv) What factors influence and explain the instructions’ performance? (v) What challenges remain in instruction following? To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive survey about instruction following.1
subject: Survey Article
  topic: section
creator: RENZE LOU
creator: Kai Zhang
creator: Wenpeng Yin
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Computational Linguistics
date: 2024-11-10
publication date: 2024-11-10

An Alternative Conception of Compositional Distributional Semantics
type: item
description: We present a new framework for compositional distributional semantics in which the distributional contexts of lexemes are expressed in terms of anchored packed dependency trees. We show that these structures have the potential to capture the full sentential contexts of a lexeme and provide a uniform basis for the composition of distributional knowledge in a way that captures both mutual disambiguation and generalization.
subject: Special Issue : Formal Distributional Semantics
  topic: section
creator: David Weir
creator: Julie Weeds
creator: Jeremy Reffin
creator: Thomas Kober
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Computational Linguistics
date: 2024-12-05
publication date: 2024-12-05

Multiple Adjunction in Feature-based Tree-Adjoining Grammar
type: item
description: While independent derivations have been shown by Schabes and Shieber (1994) to be essential for correctly supporting syntactic analysis, semantic interpretation and statistical language modelling, the parsing algorithm they propose is restricted to TAG and is therefore not directly applicable to large scale implemented Feature-Based Lexicalised TAGs (FB-LTAG). We provide a recognition algorithm for FB-LTAG which supports both dependent and independent derivations under certain restrictions enforced jointly by feature constraints and by side conditions on the inference rules of the parsing algorithm. The resulting algorithm combines the benefits of independent derivations with those of Feature-Based grammars. In particular, we show that it accounts for a range of interactions between dependent vs. independent derivation on the one hand, and syntactic constraints, linear ordering, and scopal vs. non scopal semantic dependencies on the other hand.
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
creator: Claire Gardent
creator: Shashi Narayan
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Computational Linguistics
date: 2024-12-05
publication date: 2024-12-05

Modeling Language Variation and Universals: A Survey on Typological Linguistics for Natural Language Processing
type: item
description: Languages may share universal features at a deep, abstract level, but the structures found in real-world, surface-level natural language vary significantly. This variation makes it challenging to transfer systems across languages or to develop Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems that apply to a wide range of languages. As a result, there is a vast geographical and linguistic disparity in the availability of NLP technology, with the majority of approaches developed for a handful of resource-rich languages, leaving many other languages behind. Understanding linguistic variation in a structured and systematic way is essential for the development of effective multilingual NLP applications and thus making language technology accessible to the wider world. The field of linguistic typology studies and classifies the world’s languages according to their structural and functional features, with the aim of explaining both the common properties and the structural diversity of languages. In NLP typological information has provided valuable guidance for multilingual tasks, as shown most clearly in the areas of morphosyntax and phonology. The investigated approaches include transfer from resource-rich to resource-poor languages (Padó and Lapata 2005; Khapra et al. 2011; Das and Petrov 2011; Täckström, McDonald, and Uszkoreit 2012), joint multilingual learning (Snyder 2010; Cohen, Das, and Smith 2011; Navigli and Ponzetto 2012), and development of universal models (de Marneffe et al. 2014; Nivre et al. 2016). Multilingual models can even outperform the best monolingual models (Ammar et al. 2016a; Tsvetkov et al. 2016; Adel, Vu, and Schultz 2013) by exploiting the systematic similarities and differences across languages. Such models can, in turn, help and inform research on linguistic typology itself, facilitating data-driven induction of typological knowledge. Despite this high potential of benefiting each other, the two fields mainly continue to develop independently, …
subject: Survey Article
  topic: section
creator: Edoardo Ponti
creator: Helen O'Horan
creator: Yevgeni Berzak
creator: Ivan Vulic
creator: Roi Reichart
creator: Thierry Poibeau
creator: Ekaterina Shutova
creator: Anna Korhonen
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Computational Linguistics
date: 2024-12-05
publication date: 2024-12-05

Rethinking Data Use in Large Language Models
type: item
description: Large language models (LMs) such as ChatGPT have revolutionized natural language processing and artificial intelligence more broadly. In this work, we discuss our research on understanding and advancing these models, centered around how they use the very large text corpora they are trained on. First, we describe our efforts to understand how these models learn to perform new tasks after training, demonstrating that their so-called in context learning capabilities are almost entirely determined by what they learn from the training data. Next, we introduce a new class of LMs—nonparametric LMs— that repurpose this training data as a data store from which they retrieve information for improved accuracy and updatability. We discuss our work establishing the foundations of such models, including one of the first broadly used neural retrieval models and an approach that simplifies a traditional, two-stage pipeline into one. We also discuss how nonparametric models open up new avenues for responsible data use, e.g., by segregating permissive and copyrighted text and using them differently. Finally, we envision the next generation of LMs we should build, focusing on efficient scaling, improved factuality, and decentralization.
subject: Dissertation
  topic: section
creator: Sewon Min
creator: Hannaneh Hajishirzi
creator: Luke Zettlemoyer
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-01-22
publication date: 2026-01-22

Yesterday’s News: Benchmarking Multi-Dimensional Out-of-Distribution Generalization of Misinformation Detection Models
type: item
description: This article introduces misinfo-general, a benchmark dataset for evaluating misinformation models’ ability to perform out-of-distribution generalization. Misinformation changes rapidly, much more quickly than moderators can annotate at scale, resulting in a shift between the training and inference data distributions. As a result, misinformation detectors need to be able to perform out-of-distribution generalization, an attribute they currently lack. Our benchmark uses distant labelling to enable simulating covariate shifts in misinformation content. We identify time, event, topic, publisher, political bias, misinformation type as important axes for generalization, and we evaluate a common class of baseline models on each. Using article metadata, we show how this model fails desiderata, which is not necessarily obvious from classification metrics. Finally, we analyze properties of the data to ensure limited presence of modelling shortcuts. We make the dataset and accompanying code publicly available: https://github.com/ioverho/misinfo-general
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
subject: misinformation
  topic: keywords
subject: generalization
  topic: keywords
subject: out-of-distribution generalization
  topic: keywords
subject: fake news
  topic: keywords
subject: publisher reliability
  topic: keywords
creator: Ivo Verhoeven
creator: Pushkar Mishra
creator: Ekaterina Shutova
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

How Can We Effectively Expand the Vocabulary of LLMs with 0.01GB of Target Language Text?
type: item
description: Large language models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities in many languages beyond English. Yet, LLMs require more inference steps when generating non-English text due to their reliance on English-centric tokenizers and vocabulary, resulting in higher usage costs to non-English speakers. Vocabulary expansion with target language tokens is a widely used cross-lingual vocabulary adaptation approach to remedy this issue. Despite its effectiveness in inference speedup, previous work on vocabulary expansion has focused on high-resource settings assuming access to a substantial amount of target language data to effectively initialize the embeddings of the new tokens and adapt the LLM to the target language. However, vocabulary expansion in low-resource settings has yet to be explored. In this article, we investigate vocabulary expansion in low-resource settings by considering embedding initialization methods and continual pre-training strategies. Through extensive experiments across typologically diverse languages, tasks and models, we establish a set of strategies to perform vocabulary expansion for faster inference, while striving to maintain competitive downstream performance to baselines. This is achieved with only 30K sentences (~0.01GB text data) from the target language.
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
creator: Atsuki Yamaguchi
creator: Aline Villavicencio
creator: Nikolaos Aletras
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-06-27
publication date: 2026-06-27

Multimodal OXYmorons: A Comprehensive Introduction and Computational Analysis Using a Dataset of Oxymoronic Memes in Italian and Spanish
type: item
description: This paper introduces the concept of multimodal oxymorons. Multimodal oxymorons extend the traditional oxymoron theory by constructing and communicating meaning through the interplay of multiple modalities (such as visual and textual) rather than relying solely on language. The paper argues that multimodal oxymorons are central mechanisms of meaning-making in contemporary communication, as evidenced by the use of memes as an example. While textual oxymorons have long been the subject of analysis in order to ascertain their role in shaping thought and meaning, multimodal oxymorons demonstrate how human cognitive process transcends linguistic boundaries, integrating different modalities (e.g., visual) in order to convey complex ideas. To encourage further study, we present a curated multilingual dataset of Multimodal OXYmoron (MOXY), which can be used as a foundation for further analysis and experimentation. Furthermore, we propose a methodical approach for the identification of multimodal oxymorons along with a pipeline for automated generation. Through illustrative examples and a detailed methodology, this work establishes a comprehensive framework for understanding, identifying, and generating multimodal oxymorons, paving the way for advancements in computational linguistics, artificial intelligence, and figurative language studies.
subject: Long Paper
  topic: section
subject: oxymorons
  topic: keywords
subject: italian
  topic: keywords
subject: spanish
  topic: keywords
subject: memes
  topic: keywords
subject: Large Language Models (LLMs)
  topic: keywords
subject: Multimodal Oxymorons
  topic: keywords
subject: multimodal figurative language
  topic: keywords
creator: Eliana Di Palma
creator: Giulia Rizzi
creator: Francesca Masini
creator: Paolo Rosso
creator: Elisabetta Fersini
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

Automated Essay Scoring
type: item
description: Book Review Automated Essay Scoring Beata Beigman Klebanov and Nitin Madnani (Educational Testing Service) Morgan & Claypool (Synthesis Lectures on Human Language Technologies, edited by Graeme Hirst, volume 52), 2022, xx+294 pp; paperback, ISBN 9781636392226; ebook, ISBN 9781636392233; hardcover, ISBN 9781636392240; doi:10.2200/S01121ED1V01Y202108HLT052 Reviewed by Ana¨ıs Tack KU Leuven
subject: Book Review
  topic: section
creator: Ana¨ıs Tack
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Computational Linguistics
date: 2025-09-09
publication date: 2025-09-09

Defensive Dual Masking for Robust Adversarial Defense
type: item
description: Adversarial defenses for textual data have gained considerable attention in recent years due to the increasing vulnerability of Natural Language Processing (NLP) models to adversarial attacks. These attacks exploit subtle perturbations in input text to deceive models, posing significant challenges to model robustness and reliability. This paper introduces Defensive Dual Masking (our method), a simple yet effective algorithm that employs two unique masking strategies to mitigate adversarial threats. Specifically, during training, [MASK] tokens are directly inserted into input samples to prepare the model for handling perturbed inputs. At inference time, suspicious tokens are identified and strategically replaced with [MASK] tokens, effectively neutralizing perturbations while preserving core semantics of the input text. The theoretical foundation of our method demonstrates how the proposed masking strategies enhance the model capacity to mitigate adversarial attacks. Empirical evaluations based on four benchmark datasets and four adversarial attacks consistently demonstrate that our method outperforms state-of-the-art defense techniques, achieving superior robustness and substantial improvements in model accuracy. Furthermore, our method seamlessly integrates with Large Language Models (LLMs), enhancing their resilience to adversarial attacks and providing a scalable defense solution for large-scale NLP applications.
subject: Long Paper
  topic: section
subject: Adversarial Detection
  topic: keywords
subject: Defensive Masking
  topic: keywords
subject: Model Robustness
  topic: keywords
subject: Adversarial Attacks
  topic: keywords
subject: Adversarial defense
  topic: keywords
creator: Wangli Yang
creator: jie Yang
creator: Yi Guo
creator: Johan Barthelemy
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-06-27
publication date: 2026-06-27

The Quest for the Right Mediator: Surveying Mechanistic Interpretability for NLP Through the Lens of Causal Mediation Analysis
type: item
description: Interpretability provides a toolset for understanding how and why language models behave in certain ways. However, there is little unity in the field: most studies employ ad-hoc evaluations and do not share theoretical foundations, making it difficult to measure progress and compare the pros and cons of different techniques. Furthermore, while mechanistic understanding is frequently discussed, the basic causal units underlying these mechanisms are often not explicitly defined. In this article, we propose a perspective on interpretability research grounded in causal mediation analysis. Specifically, we describe the history and current state of interpretability taxonomized according to the types of causal units (mediators) employed, as well as methods used to search over mediators. We discuss the pros and cons of each mediator, providing insights as to when particular kinds of mediators and search methods are most appropriate. We argue that this framing yields a more cohesive narrative of the field and helps researchers select appropriate methods based on their research objective. Our analysis yields actionable recommendations for future work, including the discovery of new mediators and the development of standardized evaluations tailored to these goals.
subject: Survey Article
  topic: section
subject: Interpretability
  topic: keywords
subject: Causal Mediation Analysis
  topic: keywords
subject: Language Model
  topic: keywords
subject: Causal Graph
  topic: keywords
subject: Counterfactual
  topic: keywords
creator: Aaron Mueller
creator: Jannik Brinkmann
creator: Millicent Li
creator: Samuel Marks
creator: Koyena Pal
creator: Nikhil Prakash
creator: Can Rager
creator: Aruna Sankaranarayanan
creator: Arnab Sen Sharma
creator: Jiuding Sun
creator: Eric Todd
creator: David Bau
creator: Yonatan Belinkov
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-06-27
publication date: 2026-06-27

LLMs and Cultural Values: The Impact of Prompt Language and Explicit Cultural Framing
type: item
description: Large Language Models (LLMs) are rapidly being adopted by users across the globe, who interact with them in a diverse range of languages. At the same time, there are well-documented imbalances in the training data and optimisation objectives of this technology, raising doubts as to whether LLMs can accurately represent the cultural diversity of their broad user base. In this study, we look at LLMs and cultural values in particular, and examine how prompt language and cultural framing influence model responses and their alignment with human values in different countries.We do so by probing 10 LLMs with 63 items from the Hofstede Values Survey Module and World Values Survey, translated into 11 languages, and formulated as prompts with and without different explicit cultural perspectives. Our study confirms that both prompt language and cultural perspective produce variation in LLM outputs, but with an important caveat: While targeted prompting can, to a certain extent, steer LLM responses in the direction of the predominant values of the corresponding countries, it does not overcome the models’ systematic bias toward the values associated with a restricted set of countries in our dataset: the Netherlands, Germany, the United States, and Japan. All tested models, regardless of their origin, exhibit remarkably similar patterns: They produce fairly neutral responses on most topics, with selective progressive stances on issues such as social tolerance. Alignment with cultural values of human respondents is improved more with an explicit cultural perspective than with a targeted prompt language. Unexpectedly, combining both approaches is no more effective than cultural framing with an English prompt. These findings reveal that LLMs occupy an uncomfortable middle ground: They are responsive enough to changes in prompts to produce variation, but they are also too firmly anchored to specific cultural defaults to adequately represent cultural diversity.
subject: Long Paper
  topic: section
subject: Large Language Models (LLMs)
  topic: keywords
subject: multilingual evaluation
  topic: keywords
subject: Prompt
  topic: keywords
subject: Cultural NLP
  topic: keywords
creator: Ayla Rigouts Terryn
creator: Bram Bulté
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

Are Formal and Functional Linguistic Mechanisms Dissociated in Language Models?
type: item
description: Although large language models (LLMs) are increasingly capable, these capabilities are unevenly distributed: they excel at formal linguistic tasks, such as producing fluent, grammatical text, but struggle more with functional linguistic tasks like reasoning and consistent fact retrieval. Inspired by neuroscience, recent work suggests that to succeed on both formal and functional linguistic tasks, LLMs should use different mechanisms for each; such localization could either be built-in or emerge spontaneously through training. In this paper, we ask: do current models, with fast-improving functional linguistic abilities, exhibit distinct localization of formal and functional linguistic mechanisms? We answer this by finding and comparing the “circuits”, or minimal computational subgraphs, responsible for various formal and functional tasks. Comparing 5 LLMs across 10 distinct tasks, we find that while there is indeed little overlap between circuits for formal and functional tasks, there is also little overlap between formal linguistic tasks, as exists in the human brain. Thus, a single formal linguistic network, unified and distinct from functional task circuits, remains elusive. However, in terms of cross-task faithfulness—the ability of one circuit to solve another’s task—we observe a separation between formal and functional mechanisms, with formal task circuits achieving higher performance on other formal tasks. This suggests the existence of a set of formal linguistic mechanisms that is shared across formal tasks, even if not all mechanisms are strictly necessary for all formal tasks.
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
creator: Michael Hanna
creator: Yonatan Belinkov
creator: Sandro Pezzelle
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-06-27
publication date: 2026-06-27

Truth or Mirage? Towards End-To-End Factuality Evaluation with LLM-Oasis
type: item
description: After the introduction of Large Language Models (LLMs), there have been substantial improvements in the performance of Natural Language Generation (NLG) tasks, including Text Summarization and Machine Translation. However, LLMs still produce outputs containing hallucinations, that is, content not grounded in factual information. Therefore, developing methods to assess the factuality of LLMs has become urgent. Indeed, resources for factuality evaluation have recently emerged. Although challenging, these resources face one or more of the following limitations: i) they are tailored to a specific task or domain; ii) they are limited in size, thereby preventing the training of new factuality evaluators; iii) they are designed for simpler verification tasks, such as claim verification. To address these issues, we introduce LLM-Oasis, to the best of our knowledge the largest resource for training end-to-end factuality evaluators. LLM-Oasis is constructed by extracting claims from Wikipedia, falsifying a subset of these claims, and generating pairs of factual and unfactual texts. We then rely on human annotators to both validate the quality of our dataset and to create a gold standard test set for benchmarking factuality evaluation systems. Our experiments demonstrate that LLM-Oasis presents a significant challenge for state-of-the-art LLMs, with GPT-4o achieving up to 60% accuracy in our proposed end-to-end factuality evaluation task, highlighting its potential to drive future research in the field.
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
subject: factuality
  topic: keywords
subject: factuality evaluation
  topic: keywords
subject: fact-checking
  topic: keywords
creator: Alessandro Scirè
creator: Andrei Stefan Bejgu
creator: Simone Tedeschi
creator: Karim Ghonim
creator: Federico Martelli
creator: Roberto Navigli
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-06-27
publication date: 2026-06-27

Instructional Text Across Disciplines: A Survey of Representations, Downstream Tasks, and Open Challenges Toward Capable AI Agents
type: item
description: Recent advances in large language models have demonstrated promising capabilities in following simple instructions through instruction tuning. However, real-world tasks often involve complex, multi-step instructions that remain challenging for current NLP systems. Robust understanding of such instructions is essential for deploying LLMs as general-purpose agents that can be programmed in natural language to perform complex, real-world tasks across domains like robotics, business automation, and interactive systems. Despite growing interest in this area, there is a lack of a comprehensive survey that systematically analyzes the landscape of complex instruction understanding and processing. Through a systematic review of the literature, we analyze available resources, representation schemes, and downstream tasks related to instructional text. Our study examines 181 papers, identifying trends, challenges, and opportunities in this emerging field. We provide AI/NLP researchers with essential background knowledge and a unified view of various approaches to complex instruction understanding, bridging gaps between different research directions and highlighting future research opportunities.
subject: Survey Article
  topic: section
subject: Instructional Text
  topic: keywords
subject: Procedural Text
  topic: keywords
subject: Instruction Understanding
  topic: keywords
subject: Instruction Representation
  topic: keywords
subject: Script Understanding
  topic: keywords
subject: Semantic Parsing
  topic: keywords
subject: Symbolic Representation
  topic: keywords
subject: Grounded Tasks
  topic: keywords
creator: Abdulfattah Safa
creator: Tamta Kapanadze
creator: Arda Uzunoğlu
creator: Gözde Gül Şahin
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

Sequence Labeling for Constituent Parsing: A Comparative Study and Encoding Innovations
type: item
description: Various encodings have been proposed to cast constituent parsing in terms of a sequence labeling task. However, unlike in the case of dependency parsing, existing comparisons have not been entirely homogeneous and, to the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic evaluation of these encodings under uniform configurations. A homogeneous evaluation needs to account for various aspects that could influence results, either by controlling for these aspects to ensure uniformity (e.g., network architecture, parameter settings, postprocessing of ill-formed output), or by systematically analyzing their impact (e.g., the impact of binary versus arbitrary structures). In this paper, we: (1) compare different encodings comprehensively both theoretically and empirically, on a modern neural architecture and across nine languages, and (2) also introduce new encodings and variants, including an encoding that our analysis finds particularly accurate and compact.
subject: Long Paper
  topic: section
subject: Constituent Parsing
  topic: keywords
subject: Sequence Labeling
  topic: keywords
subject: Parsing Encodings
  topic: keywords
subject: Syntax
  topic: keywords
subject: Natural Language Processing
  topic: keywords
creator: Diego Roca
creator: David Vilares
creator: Carlos Gómez-Rodríguez
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

LFG-Generation from Acyclic F-Structures is NP-Hard
type: item
description: The universal generation problem for LFG grammars is the problem of determining whether a given grammar derives any terminal string with a given f-structure. It is known that this problem is decidable for acyclic f-structures. In this brief note, we show that for those f-structures the problem is nonetheless intractable. This holds even for grammars that are off-line parsable. Â
subject: Squibs and Discussions
  topic: section
creator: Jürgen Wedekind
creator: Ronald M. Kaplan
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Computational Linguistics
date: 2024-11-22
publication date: 2024-11-22

Anthropocentric bias in language model evaluation
type: item
description: Evaluating the cognitive capacities of large language models (LLMs) requires overcoming not only anthropomorphic but also anthropocentric biases. This article identifies two types of anthropocentric bias that have been neglected: overlooking how auxiliary factors can impede LLM performance despite competence (auxiliary oversight), and dismissing LLM mechanistic strategies that differ from those of humans as not genuinely competent (mechanistic chauvinism). Mitigating these biases requires an empirical, iterative approach to mapping cognitive tasks to LLM-specific capacities and mechanisms, achieved by supplementing behavioral experiments with mechanistic studies.
subject: Squibs and Discussions
  topic: section
subject: language models
  topic: keywords
subject: cognitive evaluation
  topic: keywords
subject: anthropocentric bias
  topic: keywords
subject: metalinguistic prompting
  topic: keywords
subject: grammaticality judgment
  topic: keywords
subject: auxiliary oversight
  topic: keywords
subject: mechanistic chauvinism
  topic: keywords
subject: test-time scaling
  topic: keywords
subject: latent competence
  topic: keywords
creator: Charles Rathkopf
creator: Raphaël Millière
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-06-27
publication date: 2026-06-27

VPO: Leveraging the Number of Votes in Preference Optimization
type: item
description: Direct Preference Optimization (DPO) trains a language model using human preference data, bypassing the explicit reward modeling phase of Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF). By iterating over sentence pairs in a preference dataset, DPO enhances generation quality by increasing the likelihood of producing preferred sentences over less favored ones. Preference datasets, typically labeled with votes or scores, provide valuable insights into whether a sentence pair exhibits a clear preference or remains controversial. However, existing methods do not fully utilize this information. In this paper, we propose a technique that leverages user voting data to better align language models with diverse subjective preferences. We employ the Bayesian Minimum Mean Square Error (Bayesian MMSE) estimator to model the probability that one generation is preferred over another. Using this estimated probability as a target, we introduce the Vote-based Preference Optimization (VPO) framework, which incorporates the number of votes on both sides to distinguish between controversial and clearly preferred generation pairs. Furthermore, we demonstrate that previous algorithms, such as DPO and Identity Preference Optimization (IPO), can be extended using the proposed framework, termed VDPO and VIPO. Our experiments demonstrate that these proposed algorithms outperform various existing methods, including their base algorithms. Additionally, our framework can be applied to reward modeling, demonstrating that our approach is compatible with the broader RLHF pipeline.
subject: Long Paper
  topic: section
creator: Jae Hyeon Cho
creator: Minkyung Park
creator: Byung-Jun Lee
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

Large Linguistic Corpus Reduction with SCP Algorithms
type: item
description: For pratical reasons (mainly related to costs), and to meet the quality expectations of the associated application, corpus design is a crucial issue for building rich annotated text corpora. Reducing a large corpus while maintaining sufficient linguistic richness can be formalized as a Set Covering Problem (SCP). Within this context, we present in this paper two algorithmic heuristics applied to design large text corpora in English and French and covering multi-represented phonological units. The first considered algorithm is a standard greedy solution with an agglomerative/spitting strategy. We propose a second algorithm based on Lagrangian relaxation. This approach provides a lower bound concerning the cost of each covering solution. This lower bound can be used as a metric to evaluate the quality of a reduced corpus whatever the algorithm applied. Experiments show that a suboptimal algorithm like a Greedy achieves good results; the cost of its solutions is not so far from the lower bound (about 4.35% for the triphoneme coverings). Usually constraints on SCP are binary, we proposed here a generalization where the constraint on each covering feature can be multi-valued.
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
creator: Nelly Barbot
creator: Olivier Boëffard
creator: Jonathan Chevelu
creator: Arnaud Delhay
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Computational Linguistics
date: 2024-12-05
publication date: 2024-12-05

IDT: Dual-Task Adversarial Rewriting for Attribute Anonymisation
type: item
description: Natural language processing (NLP) models may leak private information in different ways, including membership inference, reconstruction, or attribute inference attacks. Sensitive information may not be explicit in the text, but hidden in underlying writing characteristics. Methods to protect privacy can involve using representations inside models that are demonstrated not to detect sensitive attributes or—for instance, in cases where users might be at risk from an untrustworthy model, the sort of scenario of interest here—changing the raw text before models can have access to it. The goal is to rewrite text to prevent someone from inferring a sensitive attribute (e.g., the gender of the author, or their location by the writing style) while keeping the text useful for its original intention (e.g., the sentiment of a product review). The few works tackling this have focused on generative techniques. However, these often create extensively different texts from the original ones or face problems such as mode collapse. This article explores a novel adaptation of adversarial attack techniques to manipulate a text to deceive a classifier w.r.t. one task (privacy) while keeping the predictions of another classifier trained for another task (utility) unchanged. We propose IDT, a method that analyses predictions made by auxiliary and interpretable models to identify which tokens are important to change for the privacy task, and which ones should be kept for the utility task. We evaluate different datasets for NLP suitable for different tasks. Automatic and human evaluations show that IDT retains the utility of text, while also outperforming existing methods when deceiving a classifier w.r.t. a privacy task.
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
creator: Pedro Faustini
creator: Shakila Tonni
creator: Annabelle McIver
creator: Qiongkai Xu
creator: Mark Dras
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-01-22
publication date: 2026-01-22

Tokenization as Finite-State Transduction
type: item
description: Tokenization is the first step in modern neural language model pipelines where an input text is converted to a sequence of subword tokens. We introduce from first principles a finite-state transduction framework which can encode all possible tokenizations of a regular language. We then constructively show that Byte-Pair Encoding (BPE) and MaxMatch (WordPiece), two popular tokenization schemes, are also efficiently representable by simple finite-state transducers. For BPE, this is particularly surprising given that it does not tokenize strings from left to right and requires a notion of priority. We also discuss an application of subword-level pattern promotion to guided generation, where the outputs of a language model are constrained to match a specified pattern, and how tokenization-aware promotion offers a theoretical benefit to modeling.
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
subject: Tokenization
  topic: keywords
subject: automata theory
  topic: keywords
subject: Byte Pair Encoding
  topic: keywords
creator: Marco Cognetta
creator: Naoaki Okazaki
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-01-22
publication date: 2026-01-22

We Should Evaluate Real-World Impact
type: item
description: The ACL community has very little interest in evaluating the real-world impact of NLP systems. A structured survey of the ACL Anthology shows that perhaps 0.1% of its papers contain such evaluations; furthermore most papers which include impact evaluations present them very sketchily and instead focus on metric evaluations. NLP technology would be more useful and more quickly adopted if we seriously tried to understand and evaluate its real-world impact.
subject: Last Words
  topic: section
subject: evaluation
  topic: keywords
subject: real-world impact
  topic: keywords
subject: ACL Anthology
  topic: keywords
subject: structured survey
  topic: keywords
subject: A/B test
  topic: keywords
subject: clinical trial
  topic: keywords
subject: before-and-after study
  topic: keywords
creator: Ehud Reiter
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-01-22
publication date: 2026-01-22

Training and Evaluating with Human Label Variation: An Empirical Study
type: item
description: Human label variation (HLV) challenges the standard assumption that a labelled instance has a single ground truth, instead embracing the natural variation in human annotation to train and evaluate models. While various training methods and metrics for HLV have been proposed, it is still unclear which methods and metrics perform best in what settings. We propose new evaluation metrics for HLV leveraging fuzzy set theory. Since these new proposed metrics are differentiable, we then in turn experiment with employing these metrics as training objectives. We conduct an extensive study over 6 HLV datasets testing 14 training methods and 6 evaluation metrics. We find that training on either disaggregated annotations or soft labels performs best across metrics, outperforming training using the proposed training objectives with differentiable metrics. We also show that our proposed soft micro F1 score is one of the best metrics for HLV data.
subject: Short Paper
  topic: section
creator: Kemal Kurniawan
creator: Meladel Mistica
creator: Timothy Baldwin
creator: Jey Lau
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-06-27
publication date: 2026-06-27

On Natural Language Stringsets, Senses, and Generative Capacity
type: item
description: It is demonstrated that the proofs given in prominent and well-established weak generative capacity arguments for natural language are flawed, due to unexpected interpretations of strings. However, once unique representations of lexical semantic senses form part of such intersection-based proofs, the arguments stand.
subject: Squibs and Discussions
  topic: section
creator: Daniel Radzinski
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Computational Linguistics
date: 2026-07-01
publication date: 2026-07-01

Editorial: Opening a New Chapter for Computational Linguistics
type: item
description: By the end of 2024, the journal Computational Linguistics has reached a significant milestone: It has published exactly 50 volumes over the past half-century. As we launch the first issue of Volume 51, this is an opportune moment to reflect on the journal’s legacy, ongoing evolution, and the exciting changes that lie ahead. Together, we embark on a journey to open a new chapter for this storied publication.
subject: Editorial
  topic: section
creator: Wei Lu
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Computational Linguistics
date: 2025-03-24
publication date: 2025-03-24

Book Review: Automatic Language Identification in Texts
type: item
description: Book Review: Automatic Language Identification in Texts Tommi Jauhiainen, Marcos Zampieri, Timothy Baldwin, and Krister Lind´en University of Helsinki, George Mason University, MBZUAI, and University of Helsinki Springer (Synthesis Lectures on Human Language Technologies, edited by Graeme Hirst, volume 44), 2024, xiv+148 pp; ISBN 978-3-031-45821-7; ebook, ISBN 978-3-031-45822-4; doi:10.1007/978-3-031-45822-4 Reviewed by Tom Lippincott Johns Hopkins University
subject: Book Review
  topic: section
creator: Tom Lippincott
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Computational Linguistics
date: 2025-03-24
publication date: 2025-03-24

MUCking In, or Fifty Years in Information Extraction
type: item
description: I want to thank the ACL for this Lifetime Achievement Award. I am deeply honored to be receiving it. I would also like to thank the students, faculty, and researchers who were members of the Proteus Project during most of my professional lifetime. It was an honor to serve that group.
subject: Lifetime Achievement
  topic: section
creator: Ralph Grishman
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Computational Linguistics
date: 2025-03-24
publication date: 2025-03-24